What Is The Makeup Of A Cracked Sunflower Seed?

Abstract

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Abstract

The study diagnosed engineering properties on varying moisture content of sunflower seed and kernel from 7.half-dozen to 25% (moisture basis). On increasing moisture, dimensional values increased for both seed and kernel. Bulk density, truthful density and porosity were found college for kernel as compared to seed at each moisture content. On increasing the moisture content from vii.6 to 25%, truthful density, porosity and thousand kernel weight increased. Coefficient of static friction on plywood was institute maximum for kernel at 25% moisture content, while it was minimum for seed on glass at 7.6% moisture content. The angle of serenity was maximum for kernel as compared to seed. Initial cracking forcefulness, average rupture forcefulness and average rupture free energy for seed and kernel decreased with an increase in the moisture content. The kernel was found to be more than resistant to initial cracking than seed.

Public Interest Statement

Technology properties of sunflower seed and kernel are necessary to design the equipment for handling and processing of grains. Sunflower seed undergoes a series of unit operations using dissimilar equipments and all these equipments operate on the basis of physical and mechanical backdrop. In order to increase the efficiency of equipment, it is imperative to report the technology properties of grains. The quality of sunflower oil could exist improved, in terms of low wax and improved colour, by removing the hull before the oil extraction and it is imperative to have knowledge of fracture characteristics of both seed hull and kernel. The grain moisture content affects the performance of handling and processing mechanism. Thus, the present study was conducted to make up one's mind the technology properties of sunflower seed with variation in the moisture content. The effect of the findings could be a valuable information for designing of treatment and processing equipments.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interest.

ane. Introduction

Sunflower is one of the major oil seed crops which are grown worldwide. Among four major oil seeds growing worldwide viz. soybean, brassicas, sunflower and groundnut, sunflower ranked third in total area and fourth in full production (Ashwini & Vikas, 2014). Almost 90% of sunflower is mainly cultivated for its oil, however non-oilseed sunflower (confectionary), which contribute almost ten% of production, with depression oil content is mainly consumed in the domestic marketplace e.g. in snack or baker foods. Sunflower kernel contains 50% oil and linoleic acid, which is essential fatty acid, contributes 30% of total oil. The 10% monounsaturated fatty acid (oleic acrid) content makes it nutritionally superior than other oil seeds (Earle, Vanetten, Clark, & Wolff, 1986). Sunflower seeds are skillful source of dietary fibre, proteins, vitamins (Eastward, B, folic acid) and minerals such as potassium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, selenium, calcium and zinc (Ashwini & Vikas, 2014). After the oil extraction, the meal obtained is rich source of proteins and is devoid of whatsoever anti-nutritional or toxic factors different other oil seeds meal. The proteins possess loftier digestibility and biological value. Dissimilar products such equally plastics, lecithin or emulsifying agents tin can be obtained from the rough oil, cake, hull or refined oil of sunflower.

For the designing of equipment for treatment, conveying, separation, dehulling, drying, mechanical expression of oil, storage and other processes, physical and mechanical properties of sunflower seed and kernel need to be studied. Starting from harvesting to oil extraction, sunflower seeds undergo a series of unit operations and all the equipment used at each step operates on the ground of physical and mechanical properties of seed. It is imperative to study the physical and mechanical properties of sunflower seeds to increment the efficiency of the equipment used. Therefore, the determination and consideration of these backdrop have important role (Izli, Unal, & Sincik, 2009). Gravimetric backdrop are very useful in the sizing of grain hopper and storage facilities. Charge per unit of heat and mass transfer of moisture during aeration and drying depend on the density and porosity of grains. Higher power is required to drive the aeration fans for the removal of water vapour from a low porous grain beds. Geometric properties tin be used for electrostatic separation from undesirable materials (Mohsenin, 1986). Drying behaviour of the grain tin can be predicted from its shape (Esref & Halil, 2007). Angle of repose plays an of import office in designing the equipment for solid menstruum and storage. Knowledge of the frictional backdrop is valuable in designing machines effective in dehulling and packaging.

In India, whole sunflower seed is mechanically expressed for the oil extraction, which results in the rapid wear and tear of the machine. The presence of hull decreases the oil recovery and reduces the food value of so obtained de-oiled meal (high in fibre and depression in protein). Subramanian, Shamanthaka Sastry, & Venkateshmurthy, (1990) reported that dehulling of sunflower seed before the oil extraction could improve the quality of oil (depression wax content and improved colour) and de-oiled repast (low fibre and high protein content) along with reduction in the physical damage of oil expression unit. For the design of efficient dehulling car, information technology is imperative to have knowledge of fracture characteristic of both seed hull and kernel. Gupta & Das, (2000) measured the fracture resistance of sunflower seed and kernel in terms of compressive force, deformation and energy absorbed per unit volume at various moisture contents. Aviara, Gwandzang, & Haque, (1999) reported that adjustment and performance of agricultural product processing machine depends on the moisture content of the product. Virtually of the studies showed that the moisture content of the agricultural products has a profound effect on their physical properties. Therefore, present study was aimed for the determination of concrete and mechanical properties of sunflower seed and kernel at various wet levels in club to have a systematic business relationship of physical and mechanical properties for large-scale processing.

ii. Cloth and methods

2.1. Sample preparation

The sunflower seeds (variety PSH-996) used for this study were collected from the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, Bharat. The seeds were manually cleaned to remove all foreign matter, broken or immature seeds. Dehulling of seeds was manually carried out to go the kernel. Initial moisture contents of both seeds and kernels were adamant by oven drying at 105 ± 1°C for 24 h (Özarslan, 2002). 4 levels of the moisture content of sunflower seed and kernel were selected as 10, xv, 20 and 25% (wb), in addition to the initial moisture content. The sunflower seed and kernel samples at the desired moisture levels were prepared by spraying pre-calculated amounts of distilled water, thoroughly mixed and and then sealed in separate plastic bags. Samples were stored in a refrigerator at five°C for a week to permit a homogeneous moisture distribution. Earlier starting a exam, the required quantity of sample was taken out of the refrigerator and immune to equilibrate at room temperature for at least two hours. The properties of sunflower seed and kernel were obtained at all the 5 levels of the moisture content. All the properties were carried out with three replications.

ii.two. Size and shape

Length (L), width (W) and thickness (T) of 30 randomly picked seeds and kernels were measured using vernier caliper with accuracy of 0.01 mm, to decide the average size of seed and kernel.

Equivalent diameter (D _eastward) was calculated from length (L), width (W) and thickness (T) determined by the following equation: (1) $$D_{\text{eastward}}={\left(\mathrm{50}WT\right)}^{1/3}$$ (ane)

The surface area (S) was determined according to the following equation (McCabe, Smith, & Harriott, 1986): (2) $$S=\mathrm{\Pi }\times D_{\text{due east}}^2$$ (two)

The volume (V) of the seeds and kernels in mm³ were calculated from equivalent diameter (D _e) using following equation given by Özarslan, (2002): (3) $$V=\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }}{6}{D}_{\text{e}}^3$$ (3)

Sphericity (ϕ), defined equally the ratio betwixt the surface expanse of the sphere having the same volume equally that of the seed and the surface area of the seed (Mohsenin, 1970). Sphericity was determined using the following expression: (four) $$\mathit{\varphi }=\frac{D_{\text{east}}}{L}$$ (4)

2.3. Gravimetric properties

The bulk density (ρ _b), which is divers equally the ratio of the mass sample of the grains to its total volume, was adamant according to Singh and Goswami (1996): (5) $${\mathit{\rho }}_{\text{b}}=\left(\frac{\text{kg}}{{\text{thousand}}^3}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{Yard}s}{\mathrm{Five}}$$ (five)

where Ms is the mass of seeds or kernels and V is the book occupied.

The true density (ρ _t), defined as the ratio of the mass of the sample to its true book, was determined using the toluene displacement method (Singh & Goswami, 1996): (6) $${\mathit{\rho }}_{\text{t}}=\left(\frac{\text{kg}}{{\text{thousand}}^3}\right)=\frac{M\mathrm{due\; south}}{V_{\text{d}}}$$ (half dozen)

where V _d is the volume displaced and Ms is the mass of seeds or kernels.

The porosity value (ε) which is defined every bit the fraction of infinite in the majority grain, not occupied past the grain, was calculated from the post-obit human relationship (Mohsenin, 1986): (vii) $$\mathit{\epsilon }\left(\%\right)=\left(1-\frac{{\mathit{\rho }}_{\text{b}}}{{\mathit{\rho }}_{\text{t}}}\right)\times 100$$ (7)

One thousand grain weight (g) was determined by weighing 100 seeds and kernels in an electronic balance to an accurateness of 0.001 g and and then multiplying by 10 to become the mass of 1,000 grains

2.four. Frictional properties

2.4.1. Coefficient of static friction

Three unlike surfaces (plywood, stainless steel and drinking glass) were used for the determination of coefficient of static friction (μ) of seed and kernel. These surfaces are commonly used for the processing and treatment of grains (Balasubramanian, 2001): (8) $$\mathit{\mu }=tan\mathit{\theta }$$ (8)

two.iv.2. Angle of repose

The bending of repose (θ) of seeds and kernels was measured by the emptying method in bottomless cylinder (diameter, 5 cm; elevation, 10 cm). The cylinder was placed on a wooden table, filled with sunflower seeds and kernels and raised slowly until it forms a heap. The diameter (D) and height (H) of the heap were recorded (Taser, Altuntas, & Ozgoz, 2005): (9) $$\mathit{\theta }={tan}^{-1}\frac{2H}{D}$$ (nine)

ii.5. Textural characteristics

Textural analyser (TA-HDi., Stable micro systems) was used for the measurement of initial keen force, boilerplate rupture force and average rupture free energy of both seed and kernel at each wet levels following the method of Sharma, Sogi, and Saxena (2009) with some modifications. Ten samples were selected for testing, which were visually inspected for whatever visible crack on the hull or kernel. The weather set up for textural properties were: pre-test speed, i.5 mm/s; exam speed, 0.5 mm/s; post-exam speed, ten mm/south; examination altitude, 1.5 mm for kernel and iii mm for seed; trigger type, auto; trigger forcefulness, 0.20 N; load cell, 50 kg; and probe, P/5. Bold the behaviour of seed for impact loading, single seed or kernel was placed over the cardinal point of the test surface nether the probe in horizontal i.e. normal resting position. The graph betwixt force resisted by the material and time was obtained. From the graph, initial acme position was considered every bit initial cracking force of the seed or kernel, which is related to the initial cracking of the material. The average rupture strength is the force experienced by the examination fabric from null to the test altitude and the surface area under this curve is called every bit average rupture free energy. The initial groovy forcefulness gives data about the dehulling of seed, whereas rupture force and rupture energy could be used for the oil expulsion.

2.half-dozen. Statistical analysis

A one-way assay of variance examination (ANOVA) was carried out using the software SPSS 16.0 to examine the effect of moisture content on physical and textural properties of sunflower seeds and kernels followed by Duncan'due south test (p < 0.05). The coefficients of determination between the properties evaluated and the moisture content were adamant using the MS Excel 2010 (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA, Us)

3. Results and discussion

iii.i. Size and shape

All the dimensional backdrop of both sunflower seed and kernel and their dependence with moisture content are shown in Table . Moisture content showed significant effect on all the dimensional backdrop studied except kernel length (p = 0.428) and sphericity of both seed (p = 0.314) and kernel (p = 0.148) (Table ). The regression equations for dimensional backdrop with corresponding coefficient of determination (R ⁱⁱ), which aid to predict whatsoever dimensional parameter at specific moisture level, are given in Table . Length, width and thickness of seed were higher as compared to the kernel at each wet content. This is due to the presence of seed coat, which results in higher dimensions of seed than kernel. Length, width and thickness increased linearly with an increase in the moisture content. Moisture content showed a not-pregnant result on kernel length, however, seed length was significantly increased with an increase in the wet content from eleven.33 to 12.01 mm. Like results were reported by Santalla and Mascheroni (2003) on high oleic sunflower seeds. The increase in length, width and thickness with an increment in moisture was also reported by Taheri-Garavand, Nassiri, and Gharibzahedi (2012) on hem seed and Baryeh (2002) on millets. Gharibzahedi, Etemad, Mirarab-Razi, and Foshat (2010) revealed that expansion or swelling upon uptake of water in the intracellular spaces inside the seed results an increment in dimensions. Equivalent diameter is the mensurate of diameter of sphere having same volume every bit that of seed or kernel, increased significantly (p < 0.05) with an increase in the moisture content. Equivalent diameter of seed was establish higher as compared to kernel at all evaluated moisture contents. The seed volume and expanse of seed, which are considered important during bulk handling and processing operation such equally heat and mass transfer (Eke, Asoegwu, & Nwandikom, 2007) increased linearly with an increase in the moisture content. Both area and book of seed showed considerable reduction upon dehulling. Seed surface expanse and volume ranged from 161.00 to 197.97 mm² and 192.61 to 262.77 mm³ _, respectively, in evaluated wet range. Increment in volume and equivalent diameter with an increase in the moisture content was too reported by Baümler, Cuniberti, Nolasco, and Riccobene (2006) on safflower seeds. Sphericity, which is the measure of roundness, was constitute higher for seed compared with kernel. Sphericity was found increasing linearly with an increase in the moisture content. Yet, statistically non-significant (p < 0.05) difference was found for both seed and kernel, with the variation in the moisture content. The increase in sphericity with an increment in the moisture content was also reported in soybean (Deshpande, Bal, & Ojha, 1993) and safflower (Baümler et al., 2006).

Engineering properties of sunflower seed: Outcome of dehulling and moisture content

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Table i. Dimensional properties of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

Engineering properties of sunflower seed: Effect of dehulling and moisture content

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17 February 2016

Table 2. Regression equations every bit a function of moisture content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ²) and p-value (p) for dimensional properties of seed and kernel

3.2. Gravimetric backdrop

Table shows the variation of gravimetric properties of both seed and kernel of sunflower, with moisture content. The regression equations as a part of moisture content with their corresponding coefficient of determination (R ²) for gravimetric properties (bulk density, truthful density, porosity and thousand kernel weight) of seed every bit well equally kernel are given in Table . Statistically, significant divergence (p < 0.05) was found in all gravimetric properties for both seed and kernel with the variation in the moisture content (Table ). Majority density of seed was lower than the kernel at any given moisture level. This may be attributed to the presence of seed glaze, which causes a considerable reduction in the total mass per unit book occupied by the seed. The bulk density of kernel varied from 582.50 to 554.93 kg/yardⁱⁱⁱ when moisture was increased from seven.half-dozen to 25%. A linear subtract in majority density with moisture content was observed for both seed and kernel. This indicates that increase in book was slightly loftier, when compared with an increase in mass of bulk grains. These results were further validated by an increase in porosity of both seed and kernel with an increase in the moisture content. This inverse relationship between majority density and moisture content was also observed in black hull variety of sunflower (Gupta & Das, 1997), in high oleic sunflower seeds (Santalla & Mascheroni, 2003), in soybean (Deshpande et al., 1993) and in safflower (Baümler et al., 2006; Gupta & Prakash, 1992). Truthful density of kernel was found higher as compared to seed at all the evaluated wet contents. True density values of seed and kernel point that seed will float in water (density < one,000 kg/m^three) while kernel volition sink. This data are useful in the blueprint of cleaning and separation machines for seed and kernel of sunflower. Truthful density increased significantly (p < 0.05) with an increase in the moisture content of both seed and kernel. This increasing trend in true density was also reported for pigeon pea (Baryeh & Mangope, 2002), cumin seeds (Singh & Goswami, 1996) and loftier oleic sunflower seeds (Santalla & Mascheroni, 2003). Yet, some researcher have showed decreasing trend of true density with an increment in the wet content for soybeans (Deshpande et al., 1993), cotton seed (Özarslan, 2002) and chickpea seed (Konak, Çarman, & Aydin, 2002). Baümler et al. (2006) reported that these discrepancies could be attributed to the difference in cell structure and the volume and mass increment characteristics of grain upon wet uptake. Moisture content had a meaning outcome on the porosity of both seed and kernel. Porosity increased linearly with an increment in the moisture content. Values of both majority and true density determine the value of porosity. Kernel porosity was college equally compared with seed at each moisture content evaluated. Upon moisture variation from vii.half-dozen to 25%, the porosity of kernel increased from 44.73 to 51.nineteen%. Data of porosity are important to decide the resistance to airflow during aeration and drying procedure (de Figueiredo, Baümler, Riccobene, & Nolasco, 2011). Increase in porosity with moisture content was also reported for traditional black hull sunflower (Gupta & Das, 1997), pigeon pea (Baryeh & Mangope, 2002), lentil seeds (Çarman, 1996) and safflower (Baümler et al., 2006). Yet for soybean (Deshpande et al., 1993), pumpkin seeds (Joshi, Das, & Mukherjee, 1993), and safflower JSF-1 (Gupta & Prakash, 1992) porosity decreased with an increase in the moisture content. Thousand kernel weight of seed was institute college every bit compared to kernel. Moisture variation showed a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the chiliad kernel weight of both seed and kernel. Thousand kernel weight increased linearly with an increase in the moisture content. Like increases have been reported for soybeans, lentil seeds, black cumin seeds and pine nuts (Bagherpour, Minaei, & Khoshtaghaza, 2010; Davies & El-Okene, 2009; Gharibzahedi, Etemad, Mirarab-Razi, & Foshat, 2010).

Applied science properties of sunflower seed: Outcome of dehulling and moisture content

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Tabular array 3. Gravimetric properties of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

Applied science properties of sunflower seed: Effect of dehulling and wet content

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17 February 2016

Table four. Regression equations as a function of moisture content with their respective coefficient of conclusion (R ⁱⁱ) and p-value (p) for gravimetric properties of sunflower seed and kernel

3.3. Frictional properties

3.3.1. Coefficient of static friction

Coefficient of static friction of both seed and kernel and its dependence on moisture content is presented in Tabular array . Coefficient of static friction was adamant against 3 surfaces i.e. plywood, balmy steel and glass which are ordinarily used in handling and storage of grains. Coefficient of static friction of both seed and kernel showed meaning (p < 0.05) variation with the moisture content. The regression equation as a role of moisture content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ^two) for coefficient of static friction of seed as well as kernel on all iii surfaces is given in Table . Information technology was observed that seed and kernel showed highest coefficient of static friction against plywood followed by balmy steel and glass. This may be due to the smother surface of glass and mild steel compared to the plywood. Kernels showed college coefficient of static friction compared to seed against all iii surfaces. Similar results were reported on sunflower (Gupta & Das, 1997; Santalla & Mascheroni, 2003) and Canavalia (Niveditha, Sridhar, & Balasubramanian, 2013). On all the 3 surfaces, coefficient of static friction increased linearly with an increase in the moisture content. This is due to the fact that at higher moisture content, grain surface becomes stickier and cohesive strength of wet seeds increased with the structural surface and hence increased coefficient of static friction. Similar tendency was also reported on millets (Baryeh, 2002), sunflower (Gupta & Das, 1997), lentil seed (Amin, Hossain, & Roy, 2004) and safflower (Tarighi, Mohtasebi, & Mahmoodi, 2010).

Engineering backdrop of sunflower seed: Effect of dehulling and moisture content

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Table five. Frictional backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

Engineering backdrop of sunflower seed: Effect of dehulling and moisture content

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17 February 2016

Table half dozen. Regression equations as a part of moisture content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ²) and p-value (p) for frictional properties of sunflower seed and kernel

3.iii.ii. Bending of repose

Angle of repose, which indicates the cohesion among the private grains, of sunflower seed and kernel and its dependence on wet content, is presented in Table . For both seed and kernel, ANOVA was found meaning (p < 0.05) in terms of the moisture content for bending of serenity. The regression equation as a function of the wet content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ²) for angle of repose of seed also every bit kernel is given in Table . The angle of repose was higher for kernel than seed at all the moisture level evaluated. This is considering sunflower kernels are more cohesive than seeds. Similar results were too reported on sunflower (Santalla & Mascheroni, 2003), pumpkin (Joshi et al., 1993) and Canavalia (Niveditha et al., 2013). For both seed and kernel, angle of repose increased linearly with an increase in the moisture content. Gharibzahedi et al. (2010) reported that seeds might stick together at the higher moisture content, which results in less flowability and better stability, thereby increasing the angle of repose. Similar trend was observed for light-green gram (Nimkar & Chattopadhyay, 2001), chickpea seeds (Konak et al., 2002), canola and sunflower repast pellets (White & Jayas, 2001) and okra seed (Sahoo & Srivastava, 2002).

3.four. Textural properties

Table shows the variation of textural properties of sunflower seed and kernel with moisture content. At all wet levels evaluated, it was observed that higher forcefulness was required for initial cracking of kernel than seed. The softening of cellulosic fibres present in the hull may be the reason for reduced forcefulness for initial keen in case of seed (Sharma et al., 2009). These results are in accordance with Sharma et al. (2009) on sunflower seed and kernel. Different initial cracking force, average rupture strength was higher in case of seed than for kernel at all moisture levels. The college integrity of hull with kernel may be the reason for higher average rupture force for seed than kernel. Boilerplate rupture energy for seed varied from ninety.forty to 69.28 N and in example of kernel it varied from 76.56 to 47.19 N. Like to the average rupture strength, average rupture energy was found college in seed than in kernel at all moisture levels. Gupta and Das (2000) as well institute higher resistance values for compression strength of seed as compared to kernel. This may be attributed to the softening of hull of seed, which results in the higher deformation of seed and hence more than energy for expression of oil than kernel (Sharma et al., 2009).

Engineering properties of sunflower seed: Effect of dehulling and moisture content

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Table 7. Textural backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

The regression equations as a function of wet content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ^two) for all textural backdrop (initial cracking force, boilerplate rupture force and average rupture free energy) of seed as well as kernel are given in Table . Statistically, significant difference (p < 0.05) was found in all textural properties (initial corking force, boilerplate rupture force and boilerplate rupture free energy) for both seed and kernel with the variation in the moisture content (Tabular array ). All the textural backdrop of both seed and kernel decreased linearly with an increment in the wet content. Decrease in initial bully force with an increase in the moisture content was also reported by Sharma et al., (2009) on sunflower seed and kernel. This may be due to fact that at higher moisture levels, the integrity of cellular matrix is changed. Similar results were also reported on soybean (Bilanski, 1966), pumpkin seed (Joshi et al., 1993) and melon seed (Makanjuola, 1972). The subtract in average rupture force with an increment in the moisture was besides reported by Joshi et al. (1993) on pumpkin seed and Bargale, Irudayaraj, and Marquis (1995) on canola and wheat. With an increase in the wet content, the cellulosic fibres components in the hull go soft and the integrity of cellular matric changes with water, thus, lower force required for rupture (Gupta & Das, 2000). The subtract in average rupture energy for both seed and kernel, with wet content was besides reported by Sharma et al. (2009) on sunflower seed and kernel and Baümler et al. (2006) on safflower seeds. Noesis of these properties for sunflower seed and kernel could be used to design and fabricate the dehulling machine with minimum wear and tear and maximum efficiency.

Technology properties of sunflower seed: Upshot of dehulling and moisture content

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Table viii. Regression equations equally a function of wet content with their respective coefficient of conclusion (R ^two) and p-value (p) for textural backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel

four. Conclusion

The written report was carried out to find out the result of moisture content on the engineering backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel. ANOVA performed for both seed and kernel showed that moisture content had a meaning effect on all engineering properties except length (p = 0.428) of kernel and sphericity of both seed (p = 0.314) and kernel (p = 0.148). All the dimensional properties showed an increasing tendency with an increment in the moisture content. Kernel was found to accept college bulk density, true density and porosity as compared to the seed. However, thousand kernel weight was higher for seed than kernel. Information technology was found that moisture had a positive effect on the true density, porosity and thousand kernel weight of both seed and kernel. However, majority density showed reverse trend. The results of these properties could be used in the design of cleaning and separation machines for sunflower seed and kernel. Highest coefficient of static friction was found confronting plywood followed by the mild steel and glass. Kernel showed college coefficient of static friction as compared to seed. Both seed and kernel showed higher frictional forcefulness at higher moisture content. Kernel was institute having college angle of repose compared with seed. Angle of repose increased linearly with an increase in the wet content for both seed and kernel. Amidst the textural backdrop, initial cracking force was constitute higher for kernel compared to the seed, which indicates that kernel was more resistant to initial force than seed. However, seed was found more resistant to average rupture force and average rupture energy every bit compared to kernel. Moisture content had a negative effect on the all textural properties of both seed and kernel. Information related to the textural backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel can be used for the design and fabrication of dehulling and oil extraction machines with minimum habiliment and tear and maximum efficiency.

Table 1. Dimensional backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

Moisture content (%)	Length (L) (mm)	Width (W) (mm)	Thickness (T) (mm)	Sphericity (θ)	Seed volume (5) (mm3)	Surface area (S) (mmii)	Equivalent diameter (mm)
Seed
07.threescore	11.33 ± 0.45bc	6.84 ± 0.56bc	4.76 ± 0.49c	0.63 ± 0.04a	192.61 ± 23.75d	161.00 ± 13.13d	7.15 ± 0.29d
10.00	eleven.55 ± 0.43air conditioning	7.03 ± 0.59bc	four.94 ± 0.45bc	0.64 ± 0.03a	209.93 ± 27.84cd	170.46 ± 14.96cd	7.36 ± 0.32cd
15.00	11.80 ± 0.fiftyab	7.27 ± 0.53ac	5.15 ± 0.42ac	0.65 ± 0.03a	231.41 ± 27.61bc	181.95 ± 14.78bc	7.61 ± 0.32bc
20.00	11.92 ± 0.53a	7.37 ± 0.51ab	five.31 ± 0.31ab	0.65 ± 0.02a	244.98 ± 33.91ab	188.93 ± 17.00ab	7.75 ± 0.34ab
25.00	12.01 ± 0.50a	7.58 ± 0.45 a	five.49 ± 0.32a	0.66 ± 0.02a	262.77 ± 35.93a	197.97 ± 17.87a	7.93 ± 0.35a
Kernel
07.60	9.20 ± 0.52a	four.eighty ± 0.36bc	two.27 ± 0.18d	0.51 ± 0.03bcd	52.44 ± 6.53d	67.63 ± 5.53d	4.64 ± 0.19d
ten.00	9.43 ± 0.57a	four.92 ± 0.31bc	2.41 ± 0.18cd	0.51 ± 0.04ad	58.34 ±4.88cd	72.67 ± four.01cd	4.81 ± 0.thirteencd
15.00	9.53 ± 0.73a	5.04 ± 0.25ac	2.55 ± 0.17bc	0.52 ± 0.03ac	64.17 ± 8.36bc	77.35 ± 6.71bc	4.96 ± 0.21bc
xx.00	9.65 ± 0.55a	5.18 ± 0.35ab	2.seventy ± 0.33ab	0.53 ± 0.04ab	70.45 ± 9.91ab	82.30 ± seven.71ab	5.11 ± 0.24ab
25.00	nine.70 ± 0.61a	5.34 ± 0.50a	ii.82 ± 0.29a	0.54 ± 0.04a	76.66 ± 13.41a	86.98 ± 9.92a	five.25 ± 0.29a

Tabular array 2. Regression equations as a function of wet content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ²) and p-value (p) for dimensional backdrop of seed and kernel

Sample	Property	Regression equation	R 2	p
Seed
	Length (mm)	0.17310 + 11.203	0.960	0.027
	Width (mm)	0.182ten + 6.672	0.988	0.044
	Thickness (mm)	0.183x + 4.581	0.998	0.003
	Sphericity	0.007x + 0.625	0.942	0.314
	Seed volume	17.537x + 175.73	0.996	<0.001
	Surface area	9.24110 + 152.three	0.994	<0.001
	Equivalent diameter	0.19510 + 6.975	0.991	<0.001
Kernel
	Length (mm)	0.12210 + nine.136	0.940	0.428
	Width (mm)	0.134ten + four.654	0.995	0.028
	Thickness (mm)	0.139x + 2.133	0.999	<0.001
	Sphericity	0.008x + 0.498	0.941	0.148
	Seed book	half-dozen.055x + 46.247	0.999	<0.001
	Surface surface area	4.833x + 62.887	0.999	<0.001
	Equivalent diameter	0.152x + 4.498	0.998	<0.001

Table iii. Gravimetric properties of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

Moisture content (%)	Bulk density (kg/m3)		Truthful density (kg/giii)		Porosity (%)		Thousand kernel weight (g)
	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel
07.lx	342.thirty ± 1.43a	582.fifty ± one.47a	581.33 ± 1.seventya	i,054.08 ± 2.2a	41.12 ± 0.39a	44.73 ± 0.13a	73.40 ± 0.24a	57.47 ± 0.29a
x.00	337.x ± 0.78b	574.41 ± 1.xlb	588.53 ± i.52b	1,077.09 ± two.fiveb	42.72 ± 0.23b	46.67 ± 0.09b	75.fifty ± 0.37b	59.57 ± 0.42b
15.00	334.17 ± ane.03c	567.77 ± 1.10c	599.90 ± 1.36c	1,107.78 ± 2.1c	44.29 ± 0.18c	48.74 ± 0.06c	83.50 ± 0.33c	60.60 ± 0.sixteenc
20.00	327.77 ± i.48d	560.44 ± 2.04d	608.11 ± one.69d	i,124.49 ± 2.fourd	46.10 ± 0.37d	fifty.xvi ± 0.18d	86.xx ± 0.22d	61.47 ± 0.29d
25.00	324.04 ± 1.12e	554.93 ± one.55due east	622.23 ± 1.43eastward	one,137.00 ± 2.2e	47.92 ± 0.16e	51.xix ± 0.04eastward	89.53 ± 0.29e	62.53 ± 0.29e

Table 4. Regression equations every bit a part of moisture content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ⁱⁱ) and p-value (p) for gravimetric properties of sunflower seed and kernel

Sample	Property	Regression equation	R ii	p
Seed
	Majority density (kg/m3)	−4.585x + 326.83	0.990	<0.001
	True density (kg/m3)	10.138ten + 589.61	0.988	<0.001
	Porosity (%)	one.56210 + 44.77	0.998	<0.001
	G seed weight (m)	4.296ten + 68.738	0.960	<0.001
Kernel
	Bulk density (kg/m3)	−6.911x + 608.74	0.996	<0.001
	True density (kg/miii)	21.324x + ane,016.1	0.975	<0.001
	Porosity (%)	1.727x + forty.307	0.982	<0.001
	Thousand kernel weight (g)	1.202x + 56.722	0.965	<0.001

Table 5. Frictional backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel at different wet content

Moisture content (%)	Static coefficient of friction						Bending of placidity
	Plywood		Mild Steel		Glass		Seed	Kernel
	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel
07.lx	0.35 ± 0.010e	0.42 ± 0.011e	0.34 ± 0.012eastward	0.48 ± 0.013eastward	0.28 ± 0.012e	0.31 ± 0.011east	46.19 ± 0.48d	53.51 ± 0.23d
ten.00	0.39 ± 0.011d	0.47 ± 0.011d	0.39 ± 0.011d	0.50 ± 0.010d	0.32 ± 0.010d	0.37 ± 0.012d	48.61 ± i.34c	55.33 ± 1.10cd
xv.00	0.46 ± 0.010c	0.55 ± 0.011c	0.44 ± 0.010c	0.53 ± 0.011c	0.38 ± 0.011c	0.42 ± 0.010c	51.14 ± 0.60b	57.39 ± 1.46c
20.00	0.53 ± 0.011b	0.63 ± 0.010b	0.48 ± 0.012b	0.56 ± 0.011b	0.43 ± 0.010b	0.47 ± 0.011b	52.98 ± 1.11ab	59.89 ± 0.81b
25.00	0.59 ± 0.011a	0.69 ± 0.012a	0.56 ± 0.012a	0.59 ± 0.011a	0.49 ± 0.010a	0.50 ± 0.011a	53.71 ± 1.40a	62.62 ± 0.68a

Table 6. Regression equations as a function of moisture content with their respective coefficient of determination (R ⁱⁱ) and p-value (p) for frictional properties of sunflower seed and kernel

Sample	Surface	Regression equation	Rtwo	p
Static coefficient of friction
Seed
	Plywood	0.062ten + 0.278	0.992	<0.001
	Balmy steel	0.053x + 0.283	0.986	<0.001
	Drinking glass	0.053ten + 0.221	0.996	<0.001
Kernel
	Plywood	0.0710 + 0.342	0.994	<0.001
	Balmy steel	0.028x + 0.448	0.994	<0.001
	Glass	0.048x + 0.27	0.988	<0.001
Angle of serenity
Seed
		1.941x + 44.703	0.965	<0.001
Kernel
		2.278x + 50.914	0.993	<0.001

Tabular array 7. Textural backdrop of sunflower seed and kernel at different moisture content

Wet content (%)	Initial cracking forcefulness N		Average rupture forcefulness N		Average rupture energy Ns
	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel	Seed	Kernel
07.60	28.lxxx ± 2.12a	67.34 ± 2.45a	90.40 ± 2.47a	76.56 ± two.34a	188.49 ± 2.51a	123.19 ± 2.39a
10.00	23.10 ± 0.90b	61.65 ± 1.92b	85.54 ± 1.lxxxb	70.96 ± ane.92b	173.78 ± 2.08b	121.03 ± i.47a
15.00	20.51 ± i.07bc	47.48 ± two.16c	80.36 ± 1.89c	58.14 ± 2.41c	158.20 ± two.46c	095.86 ± two.05b
twenty.00	18.46 ± ane.06cd	44.48 ± 1.47cd	76.05 ± ii.10c	52.85 ± one.96d	149.25 ± 2.47d	86.27 ± 2.49c
25.00	17.26 ± 0.82d	40.thirteen ± ii.28d	69.28 ± ii.xld	47.xix ± two.33e	145.81 ± 1.xxxd	70.26 ± ii.45d

Table 8. Regression equations as a function of wet content with their corresponding coefficient of determination (R ²) and p-value (p) for textural properties of sunflower seed and kernel

Sample	Holding	Regression equation	R2	P
Seed
	Initial cracking force (Due north)	−ii.772x + 29.942	0.915	<0.001
	Average rupture force (N)	−5.173x + 95.845	0.994	<0.001
	Average rupture free energy (Ns)	−10.989x + 196.07	0.948	<0.001
Kernel
	Initial groovy force (Due north)	−7.159x + 73.693	0.938	<0.001
	Average rupture force (N)	−7.685x + 84.195	0.973	<0.001
	Average rupture energy (Ns)	−14.062x + 141.51	0.956	<0.001

Additional data

Funding

Funding. The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Mudasir Ahmad Malik

Mudasir Ahmad Malik is a doctorate student in the department of Food Engineering and Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology. He is having feel in studying the physical properties of various types of food grains. This research was the office of his PhD programme on utilization of sunflower, especially the by-product afterwards oil extraction for the production of value-added products. The main focus was given on the protein portion of sunflower repast.

Charanjiv Singh Saini

Charanjiv Singh Saini is an Associate Professor in the department of Food Technology and Technology, Sant Longowal Establish of Technology and Technology. He was the supervisor of the research. He is currently working in area of packaging cloth and special focus is on the development of edible packaging material from under-utilized food sources and from wastes of nutrient manufacture.

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